Lever
Lifestyle
- Regular monitoring of iron levels
- Avoidance of unnecessary iron supplementation
- Engagement in moderate physical activity
Blutwerte · Marker
Eisen
Serum Iron · Serumeisen · Fe
Eisen & AnämieNüchtern erforderlichZeitabhängig
- Einheit:
- µmol/L
- Abbreviation
- Fe
Serum iron measures the amount of iron bound to transferrin in the blood.
Reference Ranges
Reference
10–30µmol/L
10
13
25
30
LowNormalHigh
Reference
Optimal
Unit · µmol/LReference ranges may vary based on age, sex, and laboratory methods.
Overview
Übersicht
Serum iron, denoted as Fe, is a critical biomarker that quantifies the amount of circulating iron bound to transferrin in the bloodstream. It plays a pivotal role in various biological processes, including oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and electron transport. Clinically, serum iron levels are integral in diagnosing iron deficiency anemia (IDA), a condition characterized by reduced hemoglobin synthesis due to insufficient iron. Researchers have found that IDA is prevalent among children, women of childbearing age, and the elderly, often resulting from inadequate dietary intake, increased physiological demands, or chronic blood loss. In the context of athletic performance and biohacking, maintaining optimal iron levels is crucial as it affects oxygen delivery to muscles and overall energy metabolism. Athletes, particularly endurance athletes, may experience increased iron loss through sweat and gastrointestinal bleeding. Biohackers focus on optimizing iron levels to enhance cognitive and physical performance. However, interpreting serum iron levels requires caution due to potential confounders such as diurnal variation, recent dietary intake, and inflammation, which can affect results. Fasting and consistent timing of blood draws are recommended to ensure accuracy.
Klinische Bedeutung
Reduced serum iron levels indicate iron deficiency anemia, while elevated levels may suggest conditions like hemochromatosis or iron overload. Accurate diagnosis requires considering other markers like ferritin and transferrin saturation.
Dynamics
Trend Interpretation
Rising Values
Progressively rising serum iron may indicate iron overload conditions such as hemochromatosis. Retest in 4 weeks if levels are outside the optimal range.
Falling Values
Progressively falling serum iron suggests potential iron deficiency or increased physiological demand.
Re-test Interval
4 weeks if outside optimal range
Etiology
Causes — High & Low
Cause
Elevated Levels
- Hereditary hemochromatosis
- Iron supplementation
- Repeated blood transfusions
- Liver disease
- Hemolytic anemia
Cause
Low Levels
- Iron deficiency anemia
- Chronic blood loss
- Poor dietary intake
- Increased physiological demand
- Malabsorption syndromes
Protocol
How to Optimize
Lever
Nutrition
- Increased intake of iron-rich foods like red meat and leafy greens
- Consumption of vitamin C-rich foods to enhance iron absorption
- Avoidance of tea and coffee with meals
Lever
Supplementation
- Iron supplements
- Vitamin C
- Folic acid
Note:
Consult a physician before starting iron supplements, especially if not iron deficient.
Testing Guidelines
🍽️Fasting Required
🕐Time-Sensitive
Iron levels exhibit diurnal variation; morning samples are preferred.
Testing Frequency
Annually for healthy adults, more frequently if at risk of deficiency or overload.
Interfering Factors
- Recent iron supplementation
- Acute inflammation
- Recent blood transfusion
Related Peptides & Hormones
Hepcidin
hormone or peptideMay affect
Open Research Questions
Current research suggests that reference ranges for serum iron, ferritin, and total iron binding capacity in different populations remain debated, particularly in relation to age, sex, and underlying health conditions. Researchers have not yet established optimal targets for iron levels in various clinical scenarios, such as chronic disease or pregnancy. Additionally, clinical questions remain unanswered regarding the long-term effects of iron supplementation and the role of genetic factors in iron metabolism disorders.
26 Research Publications
828
Total Citations
10
Human/RCT
4.9
Avg. Influence
2025
Latest
Sort
Filter
01Top
#01
Evaluation of anemia in children.
ReviewInfluence8.0
179
This study evaluated anemia in children, noting that it is often asymptomatic and detected through screening. Researchers found that mild microcytic anemia may be treated with oral iron, while severe cases require further investigation for potential blood loss. The classification of anemia into microcytic, normocytic, and macrocytic is crucial for appropriate management.
02Top
#02
Iron overload syndromes and the liver.
ReviewInfluence7.0
159
This article reviewed the conditions leading to iron accumulation in the liver. Researchers discussed the diagnostic tools available to pathologists for assessing iron overload, including histologic examination and laboratory iron tests. The review emphasizes the importance of understanding the underlying causes of iron accumulation for accurate diagnosis.
03Top
#03
Serotonin syndrome vs neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a contrast of causes, diagnoses, and management.
ReviewInfluence11.0
107
This study contrasted serotonin syndrome and neuroleptic malignant syndrome, focusing on their clinical presentations and laboratory findings. Researchers observed that neuroleptic malignant syndrome is associated with low serum iron levels, which helps distinguish it from serotonin syndrome. The study underscores the importance of immediate discontinuation of causative agents for both conditions.
04
#04
Meta-Analysis of Copper and Iron in Parkinson's Disease Brain and Biofluids.
Meta-AnalysisInfluence2.0
79
This meta-analysis assessed copper and iron levels in Parkinson's disease. Researchers confirmed that iron levels were elevated in the substantia nigra of Parkinson's patients, while copper levels were decreased. Additionally, serum iron was found to be lower in Parkinson's disease compared to controls, highlighting the complex role of these metals in the disease.
05
#05
Diagnosing iron deficiency: Controversies and novel metrics.
Rusch Jody A, et al. · Best practice & research. Clinical anaesthesiology · 2023
ReviewInfluence4.0
60
This review examined the diagnostic challenges of iron deficiency, focusing on established and novel biomarkers. Researchers found that traditional markers like serum iron and ferritin, alongside newer metrics like soluble transferrin receptor, are essential for accurate diagnosis. The study aims to improve patient care by clarifying diagnostic criteria.
Key findings
- 01Researchers observed that established markers like serum iron and ferritin are commonly used but have limitations.
- 02The review identified novel biomarkers, such as soluble transferrin receptor and hepcidin, which may enhance diagnosis.
- 03Researchers noted the importance of distinguishing between different types of anemia to improve clinical outcomes.
06
#06
Anemia of chronic disease.
Review
55
This review examined anemia of chronic disease (ACD), noting its common occurrence among hospitalized patients. Researchers found that ACD is characterized by low serum iron with normal or increased ferritin levels, distinguishing it from iron deficiency anemia, and often resolves with treatment of underlying conditions.
07
#07
Evaluation of microcytosis.
Van Vranken Michele · American family physician · 2010
Review
49
Researchers evaluated microcytosis as an incidental finding in patients, identifying iron deficiency anemia as a common cause. They found that low serum ferritin levels indicate iron deficiency, and gastrointestinal bleeding is often the source of this deficiency. The study highlights the need for thorough evaluation to determine the underlying cause.
Key findings
- 01The primary causes of microcytosis include iron deficiency anemia and thalassemia trait.
- 02Low serum ferritin levels indicate iron deficiency, which is often linked to blood loss.
- 03Further tests may be needed if ferritin levels are normal, including assessments of iron levels and hemoglobin types.
08
#08
Changes in micronutrient and inflammation serum biomarker concentrations after a norovirus human challenge.
Human
38
This study modeled the inflammatory response to norovirus infection and its impact on micronutrient biomarkers. Researchers observed that inflammation affected serum concentrations of ferritin and hepcidin, while serum iron and transferrin saturation decreased during the inflammatory response. The findings highlight the need to consider inflammation when assessing nutritional status.
09
#09
Revisiting Iron Metabolism, Iron Homeostasis and Iron Deficiency Anemia.
Review
32
Researchers revisited the mechanisms of iron metabolism and the causes of iron deficiency anemia (IDA) in this narrative review. They found that IDA affects a significant portion of the population, with laboratory features including low serum iron and ferritin levels. The review emphasizes the necessity of identifying underlying causes for effective management of IDA.
10
#10
Iron and iron-related proteins in alcohol consumers: cellular and clinical aspects.
Review
26
This review focused on the relationship between alcohol consumption and iron metabolism. Researchers observed that alcohol consumers often exhibit dysregulation of iron levels, which can complicate the diagnosis and management of alcohol-associated liver disease. The study provides insights into the alterations of iron parameters in this population.
Clinical Trials (42)
42
Total Trials
5,550
Total Enrolled
Combination Therapy of Deferiprone and N-Acetylcysteine for Treating Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia
Sponsor
Amit Lotan
Enrollment
80
Started
2026
Primary outcome
Change in Total PANSS Score
Schizoaffecitve DisorderSchizophrenia and Schizoaffective DisorderSchizophrenia and Predominant Negative Symptoms
Dipyridamole for Early-Onset Preeclampsia: A Pilot Study of Feasibility, Pharmacokinetics, and Biological Effects
Sponsor
Hadassah Medical Organization
Enrollment
15
Started
2026
Primary outcome
Protocol Feasibility
Preeclampsia (PE)Hypertension ,Pregnancy
Effects on Remission of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Following Gastric Bypass Alone vs Gastric Bypass Combined With Truncal Vagotomy
NCT07278115RECRUITING
Sponsor
University Research Institute for the Study of Genetic & Malignant Disorders in Childhood
Enrollment
40
Started
2026
Primary outcome
Complete remission of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus at 12 Months Post-Surgery
Diabetes Mellitus Type 2
Absorption of Iron From Stabilized Lactoferrin: A Study in Women With Iron Deficiency
NCT07394972RECRUITING
Sponsor
Nicole Stoffel
Enrollment
45
Started
2026
Primary outcome
Fractional iron absorption (%)
Iron Deficiency (Without Anemia)
The Effect of Cardiac Rehabilitation on Ferroptosis in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease
NCT07722637RECRUITING
Sponsor
TC Erciyes University
Enrollment
90
Started
2026
Primary outcome
Change in GPX4 Gene Expression
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)Cardiac RehabFerroptosis
Goat Milk-Derived Formula vs. Undiluted Goat Milk in Infants Unable to Exclusively Breastfeed: Growth and Biomarker Analysis
NCT07225153RECRUITING
Sponsor
Aga Khan University
Enrollment
15
Started
2025
Primary outcome
Change in lipidomic markers among infants receiving Goat Milk-Derived Formula Alternative (GMDFA) compared to undiluted goat milk and breastfeeding groups.
Malnutrition (Calorie)Infant Nutrition DisorderGrowth FlateringGut MicrobiomeLipidomics
TRIMODAL PREHABILITATION IN GASTROINTESTINAL CANCER
NCT07281248RECRUITING
Sponsor
Puerta de Hierro University Hospital
Enrollment
30
Started
2025
Primary outcome
Demonstrate the feasibility of a trimodal prehabilitation program with motivational strategies during chemotherapy in a multidisciplinary hospital setting.
Digestive Neoplasms
VertiGreens Investigating the Effects of Iron Biofortification of Microgreens on Iron Status in Women
NCT06972927COMPLETED
Sponsor
University of Aberdeen
Enrollment
30
Started
2025
Primary outcome
Haemoglobin status change from baseline
Iron Biomarkers/Status
Nutritional Status and Emotional Well-being of the Worker-consumer in the Food Supply Chain.
NCT06896877COMPLETED
Sponsor
Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ETS
Enrollment
40
Started
2025
Primary outcome
The difference in the bioimpedance vectors between two groups of patients (active workers versus sedentary workers), according to BIVA
Healthy
Effect of Chitin and Ascorbic Acid on Dietary Insect Iron Absorption
NCT06822062RECRUITING
Sponsor
Swiss Distance University of Applied Sciences
Enrollment
25
Started
2025
Primary outcome
Fractional iron absorption
Iron Deficiency (Without Anemia)
Feasibility of a Whole-Food, Plant-Based Diet for Patients With Low-Risk Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
NCT06377501COMPLETED
Sponsor
University of California, San Diego
Enrollment
19
Started
2023
Primary outcome
Adherence to the Dietary Intervention
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Stage A(0)
Effectiveness of a Cardiac Rehabilitation Program in Elderly Patients With Heart Failure.
NCT05393362COMPLETED
Sponsor
University of Malaga
Enrollment
65
Started
2023
Primary outcome
Physiological biomarkers_Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing (CPET)-(Peak VO2)
Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection FractionSarcopeniaFrail Elderly SyndromeComorbidities and Coexisting Conditions
Effects of Kefir Consumption on Health Outcomes: Gastrointestinal System, Immunity, Biochemical Parameters, Body Composition, Sleep Quality and Mental Well Being in Healthy Adults
NCT06612164COMPLETED
Sponsor
Medipol University
Enrollment
65
Started
2023
Primary outcome
Evaluation of Gastrointestinal Health
Effect of Kefir on Healthy Adults
Study of Multiply-fortified Salt Among Women of Reproductive Age and Preschool Children in India
NCT05166980COMPLETED
Sponsor
University of California, San Francisco
Enrollment
1,389
Started
2022
Primary outcome
Change in serum ferritin
Nutrient Deficiency
Effect of Altitude on Iron Absorption in Iron Depleted Women
NCT05500014UNKNOWN
Sponsor
Swiss Distance University of Applied Sciences
Enrollment
80
Started
2022
Primary outcome
Iron absorption
Iron Deficiency AnemiaIron Deficiency (Without Anemia)Altitude Hypoxia
Investigation of the Effects of Curcumin and Resveratrol Supplements Added to the Mediterranean Diet on Disease Severity and Inflammatory Biomarkers in Patients With Ulcerative Colitis
NCT05761327COMPLETED
Sponsor
Ardahan University
Enrollment
48
Started
2022
Primary outcome
Inflammatory Bowel Disease Questionnaire (IBDQ)
Ulcerative Colitis
Physical Training for People With Parkinson's Disease and Multiple Sclerosis: Effect on Mind and Body
NCT05357638UNKNOWN
Sponsor
Amsterdam UMC, location VUmc
Enrollment
48
Started
2022
Primary outcome
Change in anxiety and depressive symptoms
Parkinson DiseaseMultiple Sclerosis
Dietary Intervention Study on Food Based Dietary Guidelines for Sustainable and Healthy Lifestyles
NCT05253547COMPLETED
Sponsor
University College Dublin
Enrollment
355
Started
2022
Primary outcome
Diet-related greenhouse gas emissions reported as kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalents per day
Dietary HabitsHealthy DietHealthy NutritionPersonalized Nutrition
Potential of Prebiotic Galacto-oligosaccharides in Improving Efficacy and Safety of Oral Iron Supplementation in HIV-infected Children
NCT04931641COMPLETED
Sponsor
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
Enrollment
86
Started
2021
Primary outcome
Iron status: Serum Ferritin (ug/L) (SF)
Iron DeficiencyHIV
Serum Bovine Immunoglobulin (SBI) in Children and Young Adults With Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
Sponsor
Monisha Hitesh Shah
Enrollment
6
Started
2020
Primary outcome
Effects of Serum Bovine Immunoglobulin (SBI) on nutrition of pediatric patients with inflammatory Bowel Disease
Inflammatory Bowel DiseasesUlcerative ColitisCrohn Disease
School-Based Nutrition Education in Improving Dietary Diversity Among Adolescent Girls
NCT04116593UNKNOWN
Sponsor
International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh
Enrollment
296
Started
2020
Primary outcome
Changes in the percentage of dietary diversity (based on different food groups) from baseline.
Nutritional Deficiency
Iron Supplements Effect on b-Phe Levels in PKU Patients During 3 Years Study
Sponsor
ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo
Enrollment
84
Started
2020
Primary outcome
a significant decrease of Plasma Phe levels in Group A
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Effect Of Multiple Biofortified Food Crops On Micronutrient Status And Immune Function Among Indian Infants and Their Mothers
NCT02648893UNKNOWN
Sponsor
Cornell University
Enrollment
200
Started
2019
Primary outcome
Biomarkers of vitamin A, iron, and zinc status
Vitamin A DeficiencyIron DeficiencyZinc Deficiency
The Effect of Blood Donation on Hematological and Iron Indices and Detection of Autologous Blood Transfusion
NCT04514978UNKNOWN
Sponsor
University of Copenhagen
Enrollment
48
Started
2018
Primary outcome
Hemoglobin centration
Healthy
Study the Effect of Blood Transfusion on Oxidant-antioxidant Status in Term and Near-term Neonates
Sponsor
Rania Ali El-Farrash
Enrollment
65
Started
2018
Primary outcome
malondialdehyde
Blood Transfusion ComplicationOxidative Stress
Effect of 60-days Saccharomyces Boulardii and Superoxide Dismutase Supplementation in Obese Adults
NCT04919850COMPLETED
Sponsor
Azienda di Servizi alla Persona di Pavia
Enrollment
25
Started
2018
Primary outcome
Change on concentration of biochemical parameters for hunger sensation and hormonal status
ObesitySuperoxide Dismutase
The Efficacy and Safety of HYDROXYUREA in Management of Beta Thalassemia Patients in Karachi Pakistan
Sponsor
Dr.Saqib Hussain Ansari
Enrollment
100
Started
2017
Primary outcome
No. of participants who become responders or partial responders
Thalassemia, Beta
Open-label, Multicenter Study Assessing Preference for Deferasirox Film-coated Tablet Compared to Dispersible Tablet
Sponsor
Novartis Pharmaceuticals
Enrollment
148
Started
2017
Primary outcome
Number of Participants Preferring Deferasirox FCT or DT at Week 48 Based on Preference Questionnaire (Item 2)
Transfusion-dependent ThalassemiaNon-transfusion-dependent Thalassemia
Intravenous Iron in paTients With Heart failURe and Reduced Ejection fracTion (HFREF) pLus Iron dEficiency
Sponsor
RWTH Aachen University
Enrollment
23
Started
2017
Primary outcome
changes in blood intact FGF23 after infusion of 1000 mg ferric carboxymaltose
Heart Failure, SystolicIron Deficiency
Potential Adverse Developmental and Nutritional Consequences of Helicobacter Pylori Infection in Israeli Children
NCT02654197UNKNOWN
Sponsor
Hillel Yaffe Medical Center
Enrollment
600
Started
2016
Primary outcome
Changes in means of differences in height
Helicobacter Pylori InfectionIron Deficiency AnemiaChild Development
Confounder-Corrected Quantitative MRI Biomarker of Hepatic Iron Content
NCT02025543COMPLETED
Sponsor
University of Wisconsin, Madison
Enrollment
207
Started
2015
Primary outcome
Calibration curve of liver R2* vs LIC measured by Ferriscan at each of the sites
Iron OverloadHemochromatosisHemosiderosis
A Study Evaluating the Safety and Efficacy of Lovo-cel in Severe Sickle Cell Disease
Sponsor
Genetix Biotherapeutics Inc.
Enrollment
54
Started
2015
Primary outcome
Percentage of Group C Participants Who Achieved Complete Resolution of Vaso-occlusive Events (VOE-CR)
Sickle Cell Disease
Optimizing Iron Suppletion After Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass
Sponsor
Rijnstate Hospital
Enrollment
120
Started
2014
Primary outcome
normal value serum ferritin
Iron Deficiency
HEPFER-Evaluation of a New Phenotypic Biological Marker in Genetic Type 1 Hemochromatosis
NCT01784939COMPLETED
Sponsor
Rennes University Hospital
Enrollment
31
Started
2013
Primary outcome
distribution of values of Hepcidin / ferritin plasma ratio
Hereditary Hemochromatosis C282Y Homozygous
Safety and Efficacy of MK-8457 and Methotrexate (MTX) in Participants With Active Rheumatoid Arthritis Despite MTX Therapy (P08683, MK-8457-008)
Sponsor
Merck Sharp & Dohme LLC
Enrollment
82
Started
2012
Primary outcome
Percentage of Participants Achieving an American College of Rheumatology (ACR) 20 Response at Week 12
Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
Effect of Weight Reduction on Immunity
Sponsor
Shiraz University of Medical Sciences
Enrollment
29
Started
2012
Primary outcome
lymphocyte subgroups
LymphocytesWeight LossViral DiseasesImmunityAnti-obesity Agents
Optimizing Fluid Status
NCT01492634COMPLETED
Sponsor
Francisco Maduell
Enrollment
56
Started
2011
Primary outcome
intra-individual difference in TAFO between study start and study end
Hypotension During Dialysis
Safety and Efficacy Study of Oral Ferric Iron To Treat Iron Deficiency Anaemia in Quiescent Crohn's Disease (AEGIS-2)
Sponsor
Shield Therapeutics
Enrollment
128
Started
2011
Primary outcome
Change in Haemoglobin (Hb) Concentration From Baseline to Week 12 (Full Analysis Set, FAS)
Iron Deficiency AnaemiaInflammatory Bowel DiseaseCrohn's Disease
Magnetic Resonance Angiography for Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)
Sponsor
AMAG Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
Enrollment
119
Started
2008
Primary outcome
Segment-level Sensitivity and Specificity of VE-MRI at 3 Ferumoxytol Dosing Levels and Differences in Sensitivity and Specificity by Dose Group
Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)
Phase I Study to Examine the Effect of Deferasirox on Renal Hemodynamics in β-thalassemia Patients With Transfusional Iron Overload
Sponsor
Novartis Pharmaceuticals
Enrollment
11
Started
2007
Primary outcome
Effect of deferasirox on renal hemodynamics in patients with β-thalassemia and transfusional iron overload.
β-thalassemiaTransfusional Iron Overload
Effects Of Atorvastatin On Macrophage Activity And Plaque Inflammation Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging
NCT00368589COMPLETED
Sponsor
GlaxoSmithKline
Enrollment
47
Started
2006
Primary outcome
Changes from baseline in USPIO-enhanced MRI signal in carotid plaques at 6 weeks and 12-weeks in low and high dose atorvastatin groups (within groups' comparison).
Atherosclerotic Carotid DiseaseAtheromaAtherosclerosis
An Extension Study of Iron Chelation Therapy With Deferasirox (ICL670) in β-thalassemia Patients With Transfusional Iron Overload
Sponsor
Novartis Pharmaceuticals
Enrollment
506
Started
2004
Primary outcome
Long Term Safety and Tolerability Profile of ICL670 Based on the Number of Participants Who Experienced Any Adverse Event
Transfusional Iron Overload in β-thalassemia
Publication Trend
Research publications about Eisen over time
9totalTrack your bloodwork in PepStack
Log lab results, track trends and optimize your biomarkers over time.
Legal Disclaimer
This page is for informational and research purposes only. All information is based on published scientific literature and does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment recommendations. Many substances listed may not be approved for human use and may be subject to drug regulation laws (e.g., AMG in Germany, FDA in the US). PepStack does not encourage the use of any substance on humans. Always consult a qualified healthcare professional before making any health-related decisions. Use of this information is entirely at your own risk. PepStack assumes no liability for the accuracy, completeness, or timeliness of the content provided. Full disclaimer