THE UPTAKE OF NORADRENALINE BY THE ISOLATED PERFUSED RAT HEART.
The study demonstrated that noradrenaline uptake in the isolated perfused rat heart follows Michaelis-Menten kinetics, with evidence of two distinct intracellular pools.
Noradrenaline · Levophed
Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is a catecholamine hormone and neurotransmitter produced primarily in the adrenal medulla and by neurons in the central nervous system, particularly in the locus coeruleus. Researchers primarily study norepinephrine for its critical role in modulating arousal, attention, and stress responses, as well as its involvement in various neurological and psychiatric disorders. Key findings from recent studies highlight the importance of the norepinephrine transporter (NET) in regulating synaptic norepinephrine levels and its potential as a pharmacological target for antidepressants and other therapeutic agents. Additionally, studies suggest that impairments in noradrenergic signaling are linked to cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases, prompting investigations into strategies to enhance noradrenergic function. Current research continues to explore the molecular mechanisms of norepinephrine transport and its broader implications in health and disease, underscoring its clinical relevance.
Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is an endogenous catecholamine produced primarily in the adrenal medulla and the locus coeruleus of the brain. It belongs to the class of adrenal hormones and functions as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is synthesized from dopamine and plays a critical role in the body's fight-or-flight response. Researchers have investigated its involvement in various physiological processes and its potential therapeutic applications. Norepinephrine is primarily involved in the regulation of mood, attention, and stress responses. It is a key neurotransmitter in the sympathetic nervous system, influencing cardiovascular function by increasing heart rate and blood pressure. Research has also focused on its role in neurodegenerative diseases, appetite suppression, and neuromodulation. The mechanism of action of norepinephrine involves binding to adrenergic receptors, including alpha and beta subtypes, which trigger a cascade of intracellular events leading to physiological responses such as vasoconstriction and increased cardiac output. These receptors are widely distributed throughout the body, mediating various effects depending on the tissue type. Pharmacokinetically, norepinephrine has a short half-life, as it is rapidly metabolized by monoamine oxidase (MAO) and catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT). Its bioavailability is limited when administered orally due to extensive first-pass metabolism. Clinically, norepinephrine is used as a vasopressor in acute settings to manage hypotension, particularly in septic shock. It is approved for use in many countries, with regulatory oversight ensuring its application in critical care settings.
| Formel | C8H11NO3 |
| Molekulargewicht | 169.18g/mol |
| CAS-Nummer | 51-41-2 |
| PubChem CID | 439260 |
Norepinephrine acts on adrenergic receptors, primarily alpha-1, alpha-2, beta-1, and beta-2 receptors. Activation of these receptors initiates a cascade of intracellular signaling pathways, resulting in increased intracellular calcium levels, vasoconstriction, and enhanced cardiac contractility.
Norepinephrine primarily acts through adrenergic receptors (α and β subtypes) that activate various signaling pathways, including the cAMP/PKA pathway and phospholipase C pathway, leading to physiological effects such as increased heart rate, vasoconstriction, and modulation of neurotransmitter release. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of mood, attention, and arousal, influencing biological processes like the stress response and cognitive function. The precise molecular mechanisms of norepinephrine transport and receptor interactions remain incompletely understood, particularly regarding the nuances of non-competitive inhibition and the structural dynamics of the norepinephrine transporter (NET).
Circulating half-life ~2-3 minutes
~1-2 minutes
Poor bioavailability due to first-pass metabolism
Norepinephrine is rapidly metabolized by MAO and COMT, limiting its duration of action.
Temperature
Store at room temperature (15-30C)
Light
Protect from light
Form
Aqueous solution: use within 24 hours after dilution
Notes
Ensure solutions are clear and colorless before use.
Norepinephrine is soluble in water and slightly soluble in ethanol.
🇩🇪DE
Prescription-only medicine (verschreibungspflichtig); not a controlled substance under BtMG.
🇺🇸US
FDA approved for use as a vasopressor; prescription required.
🇦🇺AU
Schedule 4 (S4) prescription-only medicine.
🇬🇧UK
Prescription-only medicine (POM) under MHRA regulations.
Legal status information is provided for general reference only and may not reflect the most current regulatory changes. Always verify with official government sources before making any decisions.
Current evidence is limited regarding the precise molecular mechanisms of norepinephrine transport and the structural dynamics of the norepinephrine transporter (NET) in various functional states, particularly in relation to its interaction with different inhibitors and substrates. Further research is needed to elucidate the long-term effects of norepinephrine modulation on neurodegenerative processes and cognitive decline, particularly through well-designed longitudinal studies in aging populations. Additionally, the therapeutic potential of novel appetite suppressants that target norepinephrine pathways requires larger randomized controlled trials to assess their efficacy and safety profiles in diverse patient populations.
3,249
Total Citations
23
Human/RCT
3.2
Avg. Influence
2024
Latest
The study demonstrated that noradrenaline uptake in the isolated perfused rat heart follows Michaelis-Menten kinetics, with evidence of two distinct intracellular pools.
Larsen Rylan S & Waters Jack · Frontiers in neural circuits · 2018
Researchers observed that changes in pupil diameter correlate with noradrenaline and acetylcholine activity, reflecting alterations in brain state and behavior.
Key findings
The study demonstrated that increased norepinephrine levels in the amygdala after training predict better long-term memory retention in rats.
The study demonstrated that cocaine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine in the heart, increasing its availability for adrenergic receptor interaction.
The study demonstrated that noradrenaline significantly modulates various cognitive functions, suggesting therapeutic implications for disorders like depression and ADHD.
Researchers observed that pharmacological manipulations of norepinephrine and dopamine can alter central fatigue during exercise, particularly in high ambient temperatures.
Researchers observed that norepinephrine spillover is significantly elevated in hypertensive human patients under 40 years of age, particularly from the kidneys and heart, indicating selective sympathetic activation in early hypertension.
The study demonstrated that noradrenaline significantly enhances the contraction response of the isolated guinea-pig ductus deferens to nerve stimulation after prior exposure, indicating a potentiation effect on sympathetic nerve activity.
The study demonstrated that noradrenaline levels causally affect visual perception and neural responses, linking neuromodulation to perceptual awareness.
Researchers observed that norepinephrine, octopamine, and tyramine signaling systems coexist in certain marine invertebrates, indicating a complex evolutionary history of adrenergic signaling.
129
Total Trials
65,620
Total Enrolled
Vanderbilt University Medical Center
22,435
2017
Postoperative Acute Kidney Injury
Shanghai Mental Health Center
960
2020
remission of acute phase
General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University
700
2025
pH
Siriraj Hospital
600
2026
28-day survival
First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University
584
2024
Incidence of acute kidney injury after surgery
Mount Sinai Hospital, Canada
550
2023
All cause in-hospital mortality
Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf
446
2026
Area under a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of 65 mmHg (mmHg x min)
Haukeland University Hospital
300
2017
Changes in myocardial function
Shanghai Zhongshan Hospital
296
2017
PostESD bleeding
Kristen Thomsen
262
2023
Hypotension during anesthetic induction
Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron Research Institute
246
2022
incidence of PRS and VS
Pamlab, Inc.
242
2009
Improvement as Measured by Change in Clinical Global Impression of Severity (CGI-S) Rating From Baseline
Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre
240
2008
Ranking score and mortality
Zhejiang Cancer Hospital
214
2024
Postoperative delirium and cognitive function in patients with high-risk stroke.
Cairo University
212
2024
incidence of post-spinal hemodynamic instability
Inonu University
208
2021
systolic blood pressure
Tata Memorial Centre
200
2022
Cardiovascular collapse (composite outcome)
General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University
195
2019
The incidence of hypotension
General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University
175
2021
The incidence of post-spinal anesthesia hypotension
Policlinico Hospital
150
2017
Need of postoperative vasoactive support after LUTX
Koç University
148
2023
Development of pressure injury
General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University
138
2020
The incidence of bradycardia
Dow University of Health Sciences
124
2024
Incidence of spinal anesthesia induced Hypotension
Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital
112
2017
Bradycardia: Heart rate less than 50 bpm
Mongi Slim Hospital
110
2016
number of injections
Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nīmes
100
2021
Mortality
Brigham and Women's Hospital
100
1999
Frequency of Intermediate Phenotypes in Subjects with Diabetes Mellitus versus Hypertension
Tanta University
100
2023
Maternal systolic blood pressure
Universitas Sumatera Utara
100
2026
Occurrence of Acute Kidney Injury
Assiut University
100
2024
The frequency of post-spinal hypotension
General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University
99
2020
The incidence of post-spinal anesthesia hypotension
Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, School of Medicine
90
2017
Nepean Dyspepsia Index
London Health Sciences Centre Research Institute OR Lawson Research Institute of St. Joseph's
86
2006
Myocardial ischemia measures by transesophageal echocardiography and ST segment analyses
Benha University
84
2025
Incidence of Hypotension During the First 20 Minutes After Spinal Anesthesia
Kasr El Aini Hospital
84
2025
mean arterial pressure
Institute of Liver and Biliary Sciences, India
84
2012
The Hemodynamic improvement as defined as mean arterial pressure > 65 mmHg.
Cairo University
80
2025
Incidence of post induction hypotension in both groups
Aretaieion University Hospital
80
2026
incidence of hypotension
General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University
80
2025
ED50 and ED90
General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University
80
2022
The dose that would be effective in preventing postspinal anesthesia hypotension in 50% (effective dose, ED 50) and 90% (ED90) of patients
General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University
80
2025
ED50 and ED90
Tanta University
80
2024
Correlation between Peripheral Perfusion Index and ( Central venous oxygen saturation , and lactate clearance).
General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University
80
2023
The dose that would be effective in preventing postspinal anesthesia hypotension in 50% (effective dose, ED 50) and 90% (ED90) of patients
Samsung Medical Center
78
2011
Incidence of hypotension
Jinling Hospital, China
75
2011
All cause mortality
General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University
72
2024
Cardiac output (CO)
Yonsei University
70
2023
the percentage (%) of the time when the target blood pressure falls outside of 90-110%, 80-120%, and 70-130% of the target blood pressure during the total anesthesia duration
Air Force Military Medical University, China
66
2015
incidence of hypotension
University Medical Center Groningen
60
2012
the haemodynamical effects of norepinephrine and phenylephrine during ophthalmic surgery
Beijing Tiantan Hospital
60
2023
Regional Cerebral Blood Flow
National Cancer Institute, Egypt
60
2020
Renal insult
General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University
60
2024
ED50 and ED90
Tanta University
60
2024
Mortality
University Medical Centre Ljubljana
60
2020
Change of noradrenalin plasma levels between group A and group B
Infirmerie Protestante de Lyon
50
2025
Assess use of noradrenaline in the experimental group (postural mobilization) vs control group (NA only) for hemodynamic management during open-heart coronary bypass graft surgery.
Copenhagen University Hospital, Hvidovre
45
2022
Preload responsiveness defined as stroke volume increase > 10%, measured by continuous arterial waveform analysis.
Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital
40
2016
Systolic blood pressure
Cairo University
31
2019
The effect of Noradrenaline on change of cardiac output .
University Hospital, Linkoeping
31
2019
Locally induced changes in red blood cell concentration and movement due to iontophoresis of vasoactive substances.
General and Teaching Hospital Celje
30
2025
Changes in ventriculo-arterial coupling
Szeged University
30
2014
Changes of Pulse pressure variation during the operation and the post-operative 24 hours
Adams Clinical
27
2021
Stability of treatment response as defined as change in self-report PHQ-9 total scores during the observational period from Baseline/Day 0 to End of Study (EOS)/Day 365.
Sahlgrenska University Hospital
24
2016
The change of plasma volume measured by 125I-HSA before anesthesia induction until 50 minutes after anesthesia induction.
Mayo Clinic
20
2026
Arterial oxygen saturation measured via arterial blood gas sample (Sa02)
Sahlgrenska University Hospital
12
2015
Change in Glomerular filtration rate (ml/min)
University of California, San Francisco
18,000
2025
Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)
The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston
6,254
2021
Number of Participants with a Composite of Major Perfusion-Related Complications
University of Washington
700
2020
PTSD Symptoms
University of Sao Paulo
350
2024
Change in inotropic function assessed by cardiac output between T0 and T1
Cairo University
284
2017
postspinal hypotension
Cairo University
270
2017
incidence of postspinal hypotension
Azienda Usl di Bologna
264
2024
30% or more reduction in terms of the use of renal function replacement
Cairo University
260
2026
Incidence of post-spinal hypotension
Mansoura University
200
2026
Difference between the 2 groups in cardiac output at 10 minutes after intrathecal injection
First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University
180
2023
Incidence of post-induction hypotension
Cukurova University
160
2017
Incidence of intraoperative maternal hypotension
Insel Gruppe AG, University Hospital Bern
150
2016
Cumulative dose of inopressors (norepinephrine and epinephrine) per kg bodyweight/hour during the perioperative period
Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS
150
2023
Fetal Base excess
Hassan II University
140
2025
Umbilical artery pH
Helse Fonna
128
2022
Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP)
University Tunis El Manar
124
2018
systolic blood pressure variation before delivery
Centre Hospitalier Régional d'Orléans
124
2019
Cardiac output maintenance (measured in L/min by bioreactance).
Cairo University
123
2017
Incidence of post-spinal anesthesia hypotension.
University Tunis El Manar
120
2016
Maternal Blood Pressure
The Third People's Hospital of Bengbu
100
2024
Intravenous norepinephrine to maintain maternal systolic blood pressure 80% above baseline before fetal delivery.
Cairo University
86
2018
Rate of successful management of maternal hypotension
West Virginia University
85
2014
Number of Rescue Boluses to Maintain SBP
Frisius Medisch Centrum
78
2019
right ventricular ejection fraction
Kasr El Aini Hospital
62
2020
mean heart rate
Sohag University
62
2026
Mean intaroperative heart rate (beats /minute) during vasopressor infusion measured by continous electrocardiogrammonitoring
Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile
60
2025
Hypotension
Bach Mai Hospital
60
2026
Cumulative duration of MAP below 65 mmHg during induction
Kasr El Aini Hospital
60
2022
Neonatal concentration of HCO3 from a sample of umbilical cord as a surrogate of neonatal outcome
Central Hospital, Nancy, France
58
2011
Compared effects of investigated drugs on cardiac index
University Hospital, Ghent
49
2019
change in hepatic blood flow during goal-directed hemodynamic therapy with norepinphrine
Menoufia University
40
2021
throracic volume variations change from baseline
Federal University of São Paulo
40
2013
Microcirculatory flow index (MIF) measured by sidestream darkfield after rising the mean arterial pressure with norepinephrine
Algemeen Ziekenhuis Maria Middelares
40
2019
pulse pressure variation
University of California, Los Angeles
30
2022
Incidence of Acute kidney Injury
Sahlgrenska University Hospital
30
2015
Changes in LV systolic strain
Tampere University Hospital
25
2006
Evidence of clinically definite ischemia in a flap confirmed by changes in tissue oxygen pressure level and microdialysates metabolites
Oxford University Hospitals NHS Trust
25
2008
Absolute change in transfer function (flap vascular resistance) after pressor infusion.
University Hospital, Antwerp
11
2022
dose norepinephrine used in group A
University Health Network, Toronto
10
2016
Liver blood flow
Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Dijon
840
2023
Occurrence of a renal complication or death
Jagiellonian University
750
2025
Perioperative hypotension
Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Amiens
350
2022
Number of Postoperative Organ failure
Odense University Hospital
320
2023
The primary outcome is the proportion of patients achieving either SBP >100 mmHg or MAP > 65 mmHg or a target blood pressure set by the treating physician at 90 (±15) minutes after inclusion.
University of Sao Paulo
300
2012
Composite endpoint of major morbidity according to Society of Thoracic Surgery
Rush University Medical Center
252
2003
Efficacy and Safety of Dopamine Versus Norepinephrine in Septic Shock
The Cleveland Clinic
153
2020
mPAP-to-MAP Ratio
The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University
40
2016
the tissue oxygenation
Central Hospital, Nancy, France
40
2018
Obtention of a optimal cardiac output
Hospital General de Ciudad Real
21
2012
MOD (Multiple Organ Dysfunction) Score
Cairo University
20
2019
Mean flow index
UMC Utrecht
15
2009
The main study parameter will be the number of SAH patients with a diagnosis of DCI who were randomised to one of the intervention groups, in whom the intervention was adequately performed, during the duration of the trial.
University of Versailles
330
1999
28 Day mortality
Janssen Research & Development, LLC
107
2017
Time to All-Cause Discontinuation of Study Drug
Fondation Hôpital Saint-Joseph
90
2026
mPAP in millimeter of mercury (mmHg) measured by the Swan-Ganz catheter in the operating room.
Hospital dos Servidores do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
72
2018
Number of bolus required
University of Roma La Sapienza
45
2007
Systemic and regional hemodynamics
Rennes University Hospital
20
2002
Gastric mucosal blood flow assessed using a laser-Doppler flowmeter
Visarat Palitnonkiat
40
2025
24-hour mortality
Brigham and Women's Hospital
120
2010
Genetic Variation at the Caveolin-1 Locus
GlaxoSmithKline
12
2009
To estimate the degree of DAT occupancy in brain regions of interest (ROIs)following oral doses of GSK1360707 in healthy male subjects-To estimate the degree of SERT occupancy in brain ROIs following total oral doses of GSK1360707 in healthy male subject
ProCertus BioPharm, Inc
3
2011
Safety of daily topical application of norepinephrine to the radiation field.
RenJi Hospital
106
2016
cardiac output
University of Missouri-Columbia
72
2023
Change in forearm vascular conductance with intra-arterial drug infusion
Yale University
15
2020
Primary Feasibility Outcome: Ability to achieve and maintain systolic blood pressure goals
Log cycles, set reminders and visualize serum levels.
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